Rocky mountains

Rocky Mountains

Rocky Mountains or Rockies, great chain of rugged mountain

ranges in western North America, extending from central New Mexico to

northeastern British Columbia, a distance of about 3220 km (about 2000 mi).

The Great Basin and the Rocky Mountain Trench, a valley running from

northwestern Montana to northern British Columbia, border the Rockies on

the east by the Great Plains and on the west. The Rocky Mountains form part

of the Great, or Continental, Divide, which separates rivers draining into

the Atlantic or Arctic oceans ffrom those flowing toward the Pacific Ocean.

The Arkansas, Colorado, Columbia, Missouri, Rio Grande, Saskatchewan, and

Snake rivers rise in the Rockies. The Rockies may be divided into four

principal sections—Southern, Central, Northern, and Canadian. The Southern

Rockies, which include the system’s broadest and highest regions, extend

from central New Mexico, through Colorado, to the Great Divide, or Wyoming,

Basin, in southern Wyoming. This section, which encompasses Rocky Mountain

National Park, is composed chiefly of two northern-southern belts of

mountain ranges with several basins, or parks, between the bbelts. The

component parts include the Sanger de Crisco and Laramie mountains and the

Front Range, in the east, and the San Juan Mountains and the Swatch and

Park ranges, in the west. The Southern Rockies include the chain’s loftiest

point, Mount Elbert (4399 mm/14,433 ft high), in central Colorado. More than

50 other peaks of the Rockies rising above 4267 m (14,000 ft) are in

Colorado; these include Longs Peak (4345 m/14,255 ft high) and Pikes Peak

(4301 m/14,110 ft high). The Central Rockies are in northeastern Utah,

western Wyoming, eastern Idaho, and southern Montana. They encompass the

Bighorn; Bear tooth, and Unite Mountains and the Absaroka, Wind River, Salt

River, Teton, Snake River, and Wasatch ranges. The Unite Mountains are the

only major portion of the Rockies that extends east west rather than north

south. Among the peaks of the Central Rockies, which include Grand Eton and

Yellowstone national parks, are Gannett Peak (4207 m/13,804 ft high), Grand

Eton (4197 m/13,771 ft high), and Fremont Peak (4185 m/13,730 ft high). The

Northern Rockies aare in northern Idaho, western Montana, and northeastern

Washington. They include the Saw tooth, Cabinet, Salmon River, and

Clearwater Mountains and the Bitterroot Range. The loftiest points in the

section, which includes Glacier National Park, are Granite Peak (3901

m/12,799 ft high) and Borax Peak (3859 m/12,662 ft high). The Canadian

Rockies, located in southwestern Alberta and eastern British Columbia, are

composed of a relatively narrow belt of mountain ranges that terminates at

the Lizard River lowland in northeastern British Columbia. The peaks of the

section, which takes iin Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, Waterton Lakes, and Yoho

National Parks, include Mount Robson (3954 m/12,972 ft high), Mount

Columbia (3747 m/12,294 ft high), and The Twins (3734 m/12,251 ft high).

Slopes generally are very steep, and there are numerous glaciers. The Rocky

Mountains are a geologically complex system with jagged peaks as well as

almost flat-topped elevations. The Rockies were formed mainly by crustal

uplifts in comparatively recent times, during the late Cretaceous and early

Tertiary periods, and later were reshaped by glaciation during the

Pleistocene Epoch. Today the Rockies receive moderate amounts of

precipitation, most of which occurs in the winter. Lower levels are covered

chiefly by grassland, which gives way to extensive forests, principally of

conifers. Above the woodland is a zone of grasses and scattered shrubs.

Most peaks have little vegetation around the summit, and some have a year-

round cap of snow and ice. The Rockies are sparsely populated for the most

part and contain few cities. The principal economic resources of the

mountains are minerals, such as coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead,

molybdenum, petroleum and natural gas, silver, and zinc. Important mining

centers include Leadville and Climax, Colorado; Atlantic City, Wyoming;

Kellogg, Idaho; Butte, Montana; and Fernie and Kimberley, British Columbia.

Major forest products industries, especially lumbering, are concentrated in

the Northern and Canadian RRockies, and large numbers of sheep and cattle

are raised in the Rockies of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. The chain has

many centers for outdoor recreation and tourism. Bighorn Mountains,

isolated range of the Rocky Mountains, lying east of the Bighorn River and

extending generally north from central Wyoming into southern Montana. The

range averages more than 2134 m (7000 ft) in elevation; the highest summit

is Cloud Peak (4019 m/13,187 ft) in Wyoming. Along the upper levels are

large coniferous forests, which are part of Bighorn National Forest.

Bitterroot Range, mountain range, northwestern United States, a chain of

the Rocky Mountains, extending about 700 km (about 435 mi) along the

Montana-Idaho border. Rugged and forested, with an average elevation of

2740 m (about 9000 ft), it remains one of the most inaccessible areas in

the United States. In 1805 the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled west

through Lolo Pass (1595 m/5233 ft) in the range. Guadalupe Mountains,

mountain range, southwestern United States, a branch of the Rocky

Mountains, extending from southern New Mexico to western Texas. Guadalupe

Peak (2667 m/8749 ft above sea level), the highest in the chain, is in

Texas. Laramie Mountains, range of the Rocky Mountains, western United

States, extending from southeastern Wyoming into northern Colorado. The

highest point, Laramie Peak, is 3131 m (10,272 fft) above sea level. Coal,

the principal mineral, is found in the foothills. San Juan Mountains,

mountain range, southwestern United States, in southwestern Colorado and

northwestern New Mexico. Part of the Rocky Mountains, it is of volcanic

origin and is rich in minerals. The highest peaks are in Colorado and

include Uncompahgre Peak (4361 m/14,309 ft), Mount Sneffels (4313 m/14,150

ft), and Wetterhorn Peak (4272 m/14,017 ft). Sangre de Cristo Mountains,

mountain range, western United States, the southernmost range of the Rocky

Mountains, in south central Colorado and north central New Mexico. The very

high and narrow range extends southeast and south for about 354 km (220

mi), from Salida, Colorado, to Santa Fe County, New Mexico. Blanca Peak

(4372 m/14,345 ft), in Colorado, is one of the highest mountains of the

Rockies. Sawatch Range, mountain range, central Colorado, a branch of the

Rocky Mountains. The range extends for about 177 km (about 110 mi) and

reaches a height of 4399 m (14,433 ft) at Mount Elbert, the highest point

in the state. Teton (mountain range), range of the Rocky Mountains, in

northwestern Wyoming, and southwestern Idaho, just south of Yellowstone

National Park, west of Jackson Lake and the Snake River. The highest peak

is Grand Teton (4197 m/13,771 ft), located in Grand Teton National Park.

Teton Pass (2569

m/8429 ft) and Phillips Pass (3261 m/10,700 ft) are just

south of the park. Uinta Mountains, mountain range, western United States,

mainly in northeastern Utah and partly in southwestern Wyoming, part of the

Rocky Mountains. The peaks of the Uinta Mountains are mostly flat because

of erosion by glaciers and the waters of the Yampa and Green rivers. The

range is about 240 km (about 150 mi) long and 48 to 64 km (30 to 40 mi)

wide. The highest elevation is Kings Peak, which is 44123 m (13,528 ft) high

and is also the highest point in Utah. Wasatch Range, mountain range,

western United States, in the Rocky Mountain system. The range is about 240

km (about 150 mi) long; part of the Central Rockies, it begins in

southeastern Idaho and runs southward, east of the Great Salt Lake and

through the center of Utah, gradually ending in southwestern Utah. The

average height of the range is about 3050 m (about 10,000 ft), and the

highest peak, Mount Nebo, is 3620 m ((11,877 ft) high. Wind River Range,

range of the Rocky Mountains, western Wyoming, forming part of the

Continental Divide. The Green River rises in the southwestern slope of the

range, and many tributaries of the Wind River flow off on the northeastern

side. The rrange contains Fremont Peak (4185 m/13,730 ft) and Gannett Peak

(4207 m/13,804 ft); the latter is the highest point in Wyoming. Arkansas

(river, United States), river, western U.S., a major tributary of the

Mississippi River, 2350 km (1460 mi) long. Rising in central Colorado, in

the Sawatch Range of the Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of about 4270 m

(about 14,000 ft), the river flows generally east and forms a turbulent

stream passing over rocky beds and through deep canyons such as the Royal

Gorge. As it flows through the plains of Kansas, the river broadens to a

wider, less turgid stream until it enters Oklahoma; at that point it

receives two chief tributaries, the Cimarron and the Canadian rivers.

Except for a large northern bend in Kansas, the Arkansas RRiver follows a

southeastern course, merging with the Mississippi River above Arkansas

City, Arkansas. The water levels of the river are extremely variable, and

several dams have been built for flood control and irrigation and to create

hydroelectric power; one of the most impressive, the John Martin Dam in

southeastern Colorado, was built in 1948. The Arkansas River Navigation

System, completed in the early 1970s, made the river navigable to Tulsa,

Oklahoma. Athabasca, river and lake, in western Canada, that form part of

the Mackenzie River system. The AAthabasca River, 1231 km (765 mi) long,

begins in Jasper National Park in southwestern Alberta. Its source is the

Columbia Icefield, high in the Rocky Mountains. The river flows northeast

across Alberta and empties through a shallow delta into Lake Athabasca in

northeastern Alberta. The river was once an important route for fur

traders. Lake Athabasca, which straddles the AlbertaSaskatchewan- border,

is about 320 km (about 200 mi) long and covers about 7936 sq km (about 3064

sq mi). Fort Chipewyan, which was built along the southwestern shore of the

lake in 1788, became one of the region’s most important fur-trading posts.

Today Lake Athabasca is used for commercial fishing. It is drained to the

north by the Slave River. Large deposits of petroleum-bearing sand are

located along the lower Athabasca River, near Fort McMurray. Long known but

untapped because of high extraction costs, the deposits are now mined using

new technology and efficient methods. In 1994 the output amounted to one-

quarter of Canada’s crude oil production. Canadian, also South Canadian,

unnavigable river, southwestern United States, 1460 km (906 mi) long. The

Canadian River is formed in northeastern New Mexico by the union of several

branches from the southern Rocky Mountains. The river flows south through

New Mexico and then turns east, crossing the Texas Panhandle into OOklahoma.

Following a meandering course, it finally joins the Arkansas River. The

river’s only major tributary is the North Canadian River, 1260 km (784 mi)

long, which runs almost parallel to the Canadian River in Oklahoma. The

tributary joins the Canadian River at Eufaula in eastern Oklahoma to form

the Eufaula Reservoir. In northeastern New Mexico, a semiarid region, the

Canadian River provides an important water source at the Conchas Dam, a

flood-control and irrigation project. Colorado (river, North America),

river, in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, 2330 km (1450

mi) long, the longest river west of the Rocky Mountains. The Colorado rises

just west of the Continental Divide, in northern Colorado, and, for the

first 1600 km (about 1000 mi) of its course, passes through a series of

deep gorges and canyons that were created by the eroding force of its

current. The river flows in a generally southwestern direction across

Colorado into southeastern Utah, where it joins its chief tributary, the

Green River. After crossing the northern portion of Arizona, the Colorado

flows west for 446 km (277 mi) through the majestic Grand Canyon. It then

flows in a generally southerly direction and forms the boundary between

Arizona and the states of Nevada and California. Near Yuma, Arizona, the

river crosses the international border into Mexico aand flows for about 145

km (90 mi) to its mouth on the Gulf of California, an inlet of the Pacific

Ocean. Besides the Green River, the most important tributaries of the

Colorado include the Dolores and Gunnison rivers, in Colorado; the San Juan

River, in Utah; and the Little Colorado and Gila rivers, in Arizona. With

its tributaries, the Colorado drains portions of seven states, a total

area, in Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and

California, of about 626,800 sq km (about 242,000 sq mi) and 5180 sq km

(2000 sq mi) more in Mexico. To control the tremendous flow of the

Colorado, particularly under flood conditions, an extensive series of dams,

many of them constructed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, has been built

along the river and its tributaries. Notable is the Hoover Dam, which

impounds the river at the Black Canyon to form Lake Mead, one of the

largest artificial lakes in the world. The Glen Canyon Dam, in north-

central Arizona just south of the Utah border, is the third highest dam in

the U.S. In addition to regulating the flow of water, dams on the Colorado

harness hydroelectric power and provide storage reservoirs for irrigation

projects. As such, they have been instrumental in reclaiming the semiarid

and arid regions through

which the river flows. The Imperial Valley of

southern California is an excellent example of land reclaimed by the waters

of the Colorado. A number of reservoirs have been incorporated into

national recreation areas. The Glen Canyon National Recreation Area in Utah

encompasses Lake Powell, formed by the Glen Canyon Dam. Lakes Mead and

Mohave (the latter formed by Davis Dam) are part of Lake Mead National

Recreation Area in Arizona. The Colorado was first explored by the Spanish

navigator Hernando de Alarcón, who ascended the river ffor more than 160 km

(100 mi) in 1540-1541. The Colorado and its chief tributary, the Green,

were thoroughly explored for the first time in 1869 by the American

geologist John Wesley Powell. On this survey Powell and his party made the

first recorded passage of the Grand Canyon. The construction of the Glen

Canyon Dam in 1963 dramatically reduced the natural flow of sand and

nutrients down the Colorado River and into the Grand Canyon. In March 1996

the federal government released more than 380 billion lliters (100 billion

gallons) of water from Glen Canyon Dam. This artificial flood added more

than three feet to some beaches downstream and cleared fish spawning

grounds of debris and sediment. Further Reading Columbia (river, North

America), Major River of western North America, rising iin Columbia Lake,

just west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, in southeastern British

Columbia. The river was formerly known as the Oregon River. The Columbia

River is about 2000 km (1240 mi) long. It initially flows northwest,

through a long, narrow valley called the Rocky Mountain Trench, and then

turns sharply south, skirting the Selkirk Mountains and passing through

Upper Arrow Lake and Lower Arrow Lake. It next receives the Kootenay

(spelled Kootenai in the United States) and Pend Oreille rivers before

entering the state of Washington, where it first flows south and then

traverses a great arc, known as the Big Bend. After receiving the Snake

River, the Columbia turns west and forms much of the boundary between the

states of Washington and Oregon before emptying into tthe Pacific Ocean

through a broad estuary. The river flows through several spectacular

canyons and deep valleys. About one-third of its course is in Canada. The

Columbia and its tributaries together drain a vast basin of about 673,400

sq km (about 260,000 sq mi). Large oceangoing ships can navigate the lower

Columbia River as far as Vancouver, Washington; and, with the aid of locks,

smaller marine vessels can reach The Dalles, Oregon, about 300 km (about

186 mi) upstream. Barges and other shallow-draft boats can navigate a

further 2220 km (137 mi). The Columbia River has immense hydroelectric

potential, and since the 1930s several large power projects have been built

on it. The largest of these, the Grand Coulee Dam, in central Washington,

is the key unit of the Columbia Basin Project, a federal undertaking also

designed to irrigate up to 485,623 hectares (1.2 million acres) of semiarid

land. Other important power projects on the Columbia include Bonneville,

The Dalles, John Day, McNary, Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Chief Joseph

dams, in the United States, and Mica Dam, in Canada. Most of these dams are

also used for flood control and for irrigation. The American explorer

Robert Gray explored the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792. He named the

river for his ship. The Lewis and Clark Expedition explored the lower

Columbia from 1805 to 1806, and David Thompson, a Canadian surveyor and

explorer, followed the river from its source to its mouth in 1811. The

Columbia once had great numbers of salmon and supported a large canning

industry; the fish stock was severely depleted in the 1900s as a result of

dam construction and pollution. In an effort to protect the salmon from

extinction, the Northwest Power Planning Council in 1994 approved a plan to

rebuild salmon stock by increasing the water flow tthrough the dams and by

developing habitat protection standards. Further Reading Continental Divide

(also called the Great Divide), ridge of mountains in North America,

separating the streams that flow west (into the Pacific Ocean) from those

that flow east (into the Atlantic Ocean and its marginal seas). Most of the

divide follows the crest of the Rocky Mountains. It extends from Alaska in

the United States into the Yukon Territory and British Columbia in Canada

and forms part of the border between British Columbia and Alberta, also in

Canada. It then passes through Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico

in the United States and continues south into Mexico and Central America

along the crest of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The term continental divide

may be applied to the principal watershed boundary of any continent.

Fraser, river in southern British Columbia, Canada. The Fraser rises in the

Rocky Mountains, in Mount Robson Provincial Park near the Alberta border,

and flows 1370 km (850 mi) before emptying, through a delta, into the

Strait of Georgia, near Vancouver. The Fraser initially flows northwest

through a section of a deep, narrow valley called the Rocky Mountain

Trench. It then turns south near the city of Prince George, where it

receives its major western tributary, the Nechako River. In its central

section, the volume oof the river increases, and below Quesnel its banks

gradually take on a canyonlike aspect. Important tributaries in this

section include the West Road and Chilcotin rivers, from the west, and the

Thompson River, from the east. From Lytton to Yale the river flows through

a canyon of great scenic beauty. At the canyon’s southern end the Fraser

passes between the Cascade Range to the east and the Coast Mountains to the

west. A little below Yale, at Hope, the river turns sharply west, and the

fertile lower Fraser Valley begins. The Fraser empties into the Strait of

Georgia through three main channels. The river is used by commercial

vessels for a short distance upstream. From May to July the Fraser Valley

is subject to flooding; a series of dikes helps protect the delta. The

Fraser drains an area of about 238,000 sq km (about 91,890 sq mi). Much of

the river basin is heavily wooded, and forest-products industries dominate

the economy of the settlements along the river. The lower Fraser Valley,

including the delta, has highly productive farms. Various species of salmon

spawn in the Fraser, and salmon fisheries are located near the river’s

mouth. The river has great hydroelectric potential, but it remains

undeveloped for fear of detrimental effects on the migratory habits of the

salmon.

The Fraser is highly polluted, especially at its mouth. The first

European to visit the river was Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1793. It is

named for the fur trader Simon Fraser, who explored much of it in 1808. In

1858 gold was found in alluvial gravels north of Yale, and a major gold

rush ensued. Louise, Lake, glacial lake in southwestern Alberta, Canada.

Lake Louise is located at an elevation of 1731 m (5680 ft) in Banff

National Park, near the town of Lake Louise. The llake is about 2.4 km

(about 1.5 mi) long and 1.2 km (0.75 mi) wide. Sheltered by the Rocky

Mountains, Lake Louise is known for the tranquil beauty of its turquoise-

blue surface, which mirrors nearby scenic forests and snowcapped peaks. The

lake is fed from the north by the spectacular Victoria Glacier and is

drained by the Bow River in the southeast. Lake Louise was named in 1884

for the Canadian governor-general’s wife, who was also the fourth daughter

of Queen Victoria. Missouri (river) (Illinois Emissourita,“dwellers oof the

big muddy“), river in central United States. The Missouri is formed by the

confluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers at Three Forks in

southwestern Montana. The longest river in the United States, the Missouri

is one of the primary tributaries oof the Mississippi River. It flows 3726

km (2315 mi) and drains an area of about 1,370,000 sq km (about 529,000 sq

mi). The Missouri initially flows north, skirting the main range of the

Rocky Mountains. Then it passes through a 366-m (1200-ft) gorge called the

Gates of the Mountains, turns northeast and reaches Fort Benton, Montana,

the head of navigation. From Fort Benton the river flows east and is joined

by the Milk River at Frazer, Montana, and by the Yellowstone River at

Buford, North Dakota. From this point the Missouri flows generally

southeast through North Dakota and South Dakota to Sioux City, Iowa, where

it turns south and becomes the boundary between Nebraska and Kansas on the

west and Iowa and Missouri on the east. The Platte River iis received near

Omaha, Nebraska, and the Kansas River at Kansas City, Missouri. On

receiving the Kansas, the Missouri turns east and flows across the state of

Missouri. About 27 km (about 17 mi) north of St. Louis, the muddy Missouri

enters the channel of the Mississippi. Other important cities on the river

are Bismarck, North Dakota; Council Bluffs, Iowa; Saint Joseph, Missouri;

and Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City, Kansas. The upper Missouri

traverses mountainous terrain covered with dense coniferous forests. These

forests support large animals, including bears, eelk, and moose. Fish found

in the cold upper river include the Montana grayling and the rainbow trout.

The middle and lower river valleys are lined with grasslands and forests of

poplar, hickory, and other trees, providing a habitat for rabbits, foxes,

beavers, and other animals. Fish in the warmer lower river include bass,

several species of catfish, and carp. Historically, a number of Native

American peoples lived in the valley along the Missouri, including the

Hidatsa, Crow, Iowa, Arikara, Blackfoot, and Sioux. The region was popular

for buffalo hunting and agriculture, and the tribes used the river for

commerce. In 1673 French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and French

missionary and explorer Jacques Marquette became the first Europeans to

discover the Missouri when they came across the lower river during a

journey down the Mississippi. The lower river became an important route for

fur traders, who began to venture farther up the river. During the Lewis

and Clark Expedition of 1804 to 1806, American explorers Meriwether Lewis

and William Clark became the first whites to explore the river basin from

its mouth to its headwaters. Steamboat traffic on the Missouri began in

1819 with the voyage of the Independence, and soon steamboats were taking

settlers west, as well as hauling freight such as grain, fur, lumber, and

coal. Steamboat activity ppeaked in 1858, but then the construction of

railroads lessened traffic on the river. The lower portion of the river now

supports commercial barge lines, which carry agricultural products, steel,

and oil. In order to enhance navigability and provide flood control,

hydroelectric power, and irrigation, the Missouri River Basin Program was

created in 1944. Under this program and the subsequent Missouri Basin

Program, a series of dams, reservoirs, and locks were built on the river.

However, in 1993 heavy rains caused record-breaking flooding along the

Missouri and other branches of the Mississippi River. Further Reading

Saskatchewan (river, Canada), river in central Canada, 550 km (340 mi)

long. It is formed in central Saskatchewan by the confluence of the North

Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan rivers and flows east into Manitoba,

where it passes through Cedar Lake before emptying into Lake Winnipeg. The

North Saskatchewan River (1200 km/760 mi long) rises in the Rocky Mountains

of southwestern Alberta and flows east past Edmonton, Alberta, and Prince

Albert, Saskatchewan. The South Saskatchewan River (1390 km/865 mi long),

formed by the juncture of the Bow and Oldman rivers in southern Alberta,

flows northeast past Medicine Hat, Alberta, and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.

The Saskatchewan River system stretches 2600 km (1600 mi) and drains most

of the western prairie. It was an important route in the ffur trade of the

18th century but has no navigational value today. The river system is

widely used for irrigation, however, and it has several hydroelectric

facilities, notably Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River, near

Saskatoon, and Grand Rapids Dam, at the mouth of the Saskatchewan River.

Arapahoe Peak, mountain, northern Colorado, in the Front Range of the Rocky

Mountains, near Boulder; 4117 m (13,506 ft) high. On the face of the peak

is an ice field known as Arapahoe Glacier. Blanca Peak, mountain, south

central Colorado, in the Sangre de Cristo Range of the Rocky Mountains,

near Great Sand Dunes National Monument. It is 4372 m (14,345 ft) high and

is one of the highest mountains in the state. Pikes Peak, one of the most

famous peaks in the Rocky Mountains, located in the Front Range, central

Colorado, near Colorado Springs. Although the elevation (4301 m/14,110 ft)

of the peak is not the highest in the state, Pikes Peak is noted for a

commanding view. Tourists can ascend the mountain by three different means:

by horseback, by a cog railway approximately 14 km (9 mi) long, or by

automobile over a well-constructed road. Two springs, Manitou and Colorado,

are located near the foot of the mountain. On the summit of Pikes Peak is a

meteorological station.

The peak was discovered in 1806 by the American

explorer and army officer Zebulon Montgomery Pike. It was first climbed in

1820. Bufflehead, common name for a small north American diving duck. Its

name is derived from „buffalo-head,“ an allusion to the large size of its

short-billed head, especially in males, created by especially puffy

feathers. The body plumage of males is black and white above and white

below, the head glossy black with a large white patch from the eye to the

back edge. Females are ddark brown, with a smaller white patch on the side

of the head. Adults are about 38 cm (about 15 in) long. Buffleheads nest in

wooded areas of Canada and the Rocky Mountains, and winter on bays, lakes,

rivers, and harbors. Scientific classification: The bufflehead belongs to

the tribe Mergini in the family Anatidae. It is classified as Bucephala

albeola. Grosbeak, common name for several species of large-billed seed-

eating birds of the fringillid, or finch, family and of the emberizid

family. Of the fringillid grosbeaks, only ttwo are found in North America:

the relatively small billed pine grosbeak, of northern coniferous forests

around the world, and the very large billed evening grosbeak. The latter

species breeds in coniferous forests in Canada and the northernmost United

States, extending in the Rocky MMountains south to Mexico. It winters

irregularly in the United States, in some years invading in great numbers,

occasionally south to northern Florida. Until the 1950s it bred only as Far

East as Michigan and Ontario, but it then began expanding its range to New

York, New England, and the Maritime Provinces. Some attribute this

expansion to better winter survival, as many people put out sunflower seeds

and other food for these birds. Some cardinaline grosbeaks are entirely

tropical. In North America the best-known species are the rose-breasted

grosbeak, of the east, and its western counterpart, the black-headed

grosbeak. In both the male is strikingly colored: black and white with a

bright-pink breast spot in the former, and black and orange-brown in the

latter. The females look like giant sparrows. The bblue grosbeak is found in

the southern United States and Mexico. Males are rich blue with brown wing

bars, and females are dark brown. Scientific classification: Grosbeaks

belong to the families Fringillidae and Emberizidae, of the order

Passeriformes. They are sometimes all placed in either one of those

families. The pine grosbeak is classified as Pinicola enucleator, the

evening grosbeak as Coccothraustes vespertina (sometimes Hesperiphona

vespertina), the rose-breasted grosbeak as Pheucticus ludovicianus, the

black-headed grosbeak as Pheucticus melanocephalus, and the blue grosbeak

as Guiraca caerulea. Grouse, common name for 117 species of birds of the

pheasant family, found around the world in the northern hemisphere; two of

the three species of ptarmigan inhabit both the Americas and Eurasia.

Grouse vary in size from males of the capercaillie, 86 cm (34 in) long, of

European coniferous forests, to the 32 cm (12.5 in) white-tailed ptarmigan,

of western North American Mountains. In most species the sexes differ in

color, but none have truly bright plumage. Bright colors are limited to red

or yellow comblike structures over the eyes, expanded during the breeding

season, or sacs of naked skin that inflate like balloons during courtship

displays. Mating systems are elaborate in most grouse, and in many the

males are polygamous, meeting in the spring at certain arenas where they

compete for mates. As highly popular game birds, grouse have been

intensively studied. Best known and most widely distributed of the American

species is the ruffed grouse, which occurs in woodlands from Alaska to

Newfoundland, south to the northern Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians.

The name comes from a ruff of black (rarely, coppery) feathers at the sides

of the neck. These feathers are larger in males than in females, and are

spread widely during courtship displays, when the male struts on a moss-

covered log. This species is famous for tthe springtime „drumming“ of the

males, a sound produced by the beating of the wings against the air, as the

male stands erect. The sound carries a great distance, and resembles a

noisy gasoline engine starting up. Two other North American grouse, the

blue grouse of western mountains and the more widely distributed spruce

grouse are confined to coniferous forests. The male blue grouse has

inflatable neck sacs, varying geographically in color from yellow to

reddish purple; the spruce grouse lacks such sacs. These two species have

been called „fool hens“ because of their apparent fearlessness, making them

easy to hunt. Two species of prairie chicken, the closely related sharp-

tailed grouse, and the sage grouse, dwell in open country. The latter, an

inhabitant of sagebrush areas, especially in the Great Basin, is the

largest American grouse. Males reach 75 cm (30 in) in length; females are

smaller (58 cm/23 in). During the communal courtship displays, males strut

about with their spiky tail feathers fanned out, and a pair of yellow sacs

on their chests inflated. Scientific classification: Grouse belong to the

family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes. The capercaillie is classified

as Tetrao urogallus, the white-tailed ptarmigan as Lagopus leucurus, and

the ruffed grouse as Bonasa umbellus. The blue grouse is classified as

Dendragapus obscurus and the spruce ggrouse as Dendragapus canadensis.

Prairie chickens are classified in the genus Tympanuchus. The sharp-tailed

grouse is classified as Tympanuchus phasianellus and the sage grouse as

Centrocercus urophasianus. Further Reading Solitaire (bird), common name

applied to various species of American thrush. In the United States, one

species, Townsend’s solitaire, is found chiefly in the Rocky Mountains. The

bird is largely brownish gray in color, with a white-eye ring and a buff

wing patch. All solitaires are superb singers. Solitaire was also the name

of an extinct, flightless bird resembling the dodo. It inhabited Rodrigues,

an island in the Indian Ocean, until the last half of the 18th century.

Scientific classification: Solitaires belong to the family Turdidae of the

order Passeriformes. Townsend’s solitaire is classified as Myadestes

townsendi. The solitaire that is now extinct belongs to the family

Raphidae, order Columbiformes, and is classified as Pezophaps solitaria.

Columbine (flower), common name for certain perennial herbs with lacy,

lobed leaves and delicate flowers. Remarkably, both sepals and petals are

colored, and the petals extend to form a spur. The 40 known species are

widely distributed in the North Temperate Zone and show a prismatic range

of color. North American and Eurasian species, as well as a number of

hybrids, are grown in gardens. Among the common species are the wild

columbine, with scarlet

to pink flowers, native from Nova Scotia to Texas,

and the Colorado, or Rocky Mountain, columbine, with blue flowers.

Scientific classification: Columbines belong to the family Ranunculaceae.

Wild columbine is classified as Aquilegia canadensis. Colorado, or Rocky

Mountain, columbine is classified as Aquilegia caerulea. Indian Paintbrush,

common name for any of a genus of annual, biennial, and perennial herbs

(see Figwort). The genus, which contains about 200 species, is native to

the cooler portions of North and Central America and Asia, and to the

Andes. Because Indian paintbrushes, aalso called painted cups, are parasitic

on the roots of other plants, they have not been naturalized and have

rarely been cultivated away from their native habitat. The plants have

long, hairy, unbranched stems with alternate leaves. The uppermost leaves,

or bracts, are brilliantly colored and much showier than the inconspicuous

interspersed flowers. The flowers, which are borne in spikes, have a two-

lobed calyx, a two-lobed corolla, four stamens, and a solitary pistil. The

corolla, which is usually yellow, is encased within the calyx, and is

usually iindiscernible. The fruit is a two-celled capsule. The common

painted cup is the state flower of Wyoming. The calyx of this plant is

greenish white, but the bracts are intense vermilion. The scarlet

paintbrush is a common wild plant of the eastern United SStates. The common

Indian paintbrush is a hardy herb found in Canada and in the mountainous

regions of the northern United States from New England to the Rocky

Mountains. Its calyx is greenish white tinted with purplish red. Scientific

classification: Indian paintbrushes make up the genus Castilleja, of the

family Scrophulariaceae. The common painted cup is classified as Castilleja

linariaefolia, the scarlet paintbrush as Castilleja coccinea, and the

common Indian paintbrush as Castilleja septentrionalis. Sagebrush, common

name applied to any of several related aromatic, bitter shrubs, native to

the plains and mountains of western North America, but especially to the

Great Basin, the extensive desert region west of the Rocky Mountains in the

United States. Sagebrush is some of the few woody members of their family

(see Composite Flowers). The most common sspecies in the United States is

the common sagebrush, a many-branched plant that grows from 0.3 to 6 m (1

to 20 ft) in height. It has silvery, toothed leaves and terminal clusters

of small, yellow flowers. A similar species, the low sagebrush, attains a

maximum height of 30 cm (1 ft) and is abundant in the plains of Colorado

and Wyoming. Because sagebrush often grows in regions where there are few

other woody plants, it is sometimes used for fuel. In some areas the

foliage is uused as winter forage. Overgrazing of native grasses has caused

a proportionate increase in sagebrush. Scientific classification: Sagebrush

is classified in the genus Artemisia of the family Compositae. The common

sagebrush is classified as Artemisia tridentata. The low sagebrush is

classified as Artemisia arbuscula. Bighorn Sheep, largest and best-known

wild sheep of the North American continent, also called Rocky Mountain

sheep. They are found from southern British Columbia to northwestern

Mexico. A full-grown bighorn may average 101 cm (40 in) at the shoulder and

range in weight from 79 to 158 kg (175 to 350 lb). The great curved horns,

which may take more than one turn, attain a length of up to 127 cm (up to

50 in). The ewes have smaller horns, seldom exceeding 38 cm (15 in). The

coat is not woolly but long, full, and coarse, like that of a goat. The

animals have a short mating season, during which the rams clash head-on in

a battle for the ewes; for the rest of the year the sheep usually divide

into separate male and female herds. The bighorns leap from ledge to ledge

at great speed and grip slippery surfaces with the shock-absorbing elastic

pads of the feet. The animals have exceptionally acute senses of sight,

smell, and hearing. Two other varieties found iin northwest North America

are the white sheep, or Dall sheep, and the deep gray or grayish-brown

Stone’s sheep. The bighorn is related to the Asian argali, the mouflon, and

the domestic sheep. Scientific classification: The bighorn sheep belongs to

the family Bovidae, in the order Artiodactyla. It is classified as Ovis

canadensis. Ground Squirrel, common name for certain burrowing,

terrestrial, western American rodents characterized by large cheek pouches

opening inside their mouths. Ground squirrels are often erroneously called

gophers. Like the true gophers, they are agricultural menaces, destroying

grass and grain. Their alternate name, spermophile (Greek for „seed

lover“), is derived from their usual diet. The ground squirrel resembles

both the prairie dog and the chipmunk. Most ground squirrels are brownish

or yellowish-gray, with light spots on the upper parts. Some species have

longitudinal stripes along their backs. In the northern part of their range

they hibernate during the winter; the duration of hibernation varies with

the environment, and in some species hibernation may extend from September

to May. Ground squirrels are found in open country, often in arid regions.

The Great Plains ground squirrel, found west of the Rocky Mountains, is

typical of most of the spermophiles. The rough-haired ground squirrel is 28

cm (11 in) long and has an 8-cm (3-in) bushy tail. Its back is bbrown and

its lower parts yellowish-gray; it has a white chin and a white ring around

each eye. The head is stubby, with round, wide ears. The legs are short.

These animals seek their food close to their burrows. They mate after they

emerge from hibernation in the spring; the female bears 5 to 13 offspring

at a time. The 13-striped spermophile, found near the Mississippi River,

has 7 grayish-yellow stripes running down its back, interspersed with 6

stripes composed of spots. Its lower parts are fawn colored. This animal

subsists on mice, insects, and grain. Scientific classification: Ground

squirrels belong to the family Sciuridae. The Great Plains ground squirrel

is classified as Spermophilus elegans, the 13-striped ground squirrel as

Spermophilus tridecemlineatus. Further Reading Mule Deer, common name for a

large deer of the western and central United States, so called because of

its extremely large ears, which measure almost 25 cm (almost 10 in) in

length. This animal attains a height of 107 cm (42 in) at the shoulder. The

name black-tailed deer is sometimes applied to a subspecies of the mule

deer inhabiting the Rocky Mountains. The tail of this deer along the basal

two-thirds is white above and dark below; the terminal third is black.

Scientific classification: The mule deer belongs to the family Cervidae.

It

is classified as Odocoileus hemionus. Rocky Mountain Goat, also mountain

goat, common name of a species of antelope that inhabits the high mountains

from the northwestern United States to Alaska. Mountain goats live in

regions of heavy snowfall and tend to inhabit localities with many crags

and cliffs. They are excellent climbers, and their hooves, which have soft

pads rimmed with sharp edges, enable them to climb and run on snow, ice, or

bare rock. The Rocky Mountain goat is 90 to 120 cm (36 to 447 in) tall at

the shoulders. The body is sturdy and the legs are short and stout. Both

sexes have black horns, which contrast with the yellowish-white, shaggy

hair covering the entire body, and a beardlike tuft of hair underneath the

chin. Rocky Mountain goats are herbivorous ruminants, feeding on any

exposed vegetation they find. They are not gregarious, except during the

mating season between November and early January. The young are born

generally between May and June. Scientific classification: The Rocky

Mountain goat belongs to the family BBovidae. It is classified as Oreamnos

americanus. Wolf, carnivore related to the jackal and domestic dog.

Powerful teeth, bushy tails, and round pupils characterize all wolves.

Certain characteristics of the skull distinguish them from domestic dogs,

some breeds of which they otherwise resemble. There aare two species of

wolves: the gray, or timber, wolf, once widely distributed but now found

only in Canada, Alaska, and northern Europe and Russia, except for a few

isolated packs in other regions; and the red wolf, found only in Texas and

the southeastern United States. An adult gray wolf measures up to 2 m (6.5

ft) in length, including the tail (less than half the body length), and

weighs up to 80 kg (175 lb). The fur of the gray wolf is red-yellow or

yellow-gray with black patches on its back and sides, and white on its

chest and abdomen. There are also black or brown gray wolves, and those in

the far north may be pure white. The red wolf is smaller in size and

usually darker iin color. Wolves are equally at home on prairies, in forest

lands, and on all but the highest mountains. In the winter they travel in

packs searching for food. Small animals and birds are the common prey of

wolves, but a pack sometimes attacks reindeer, caribou, sheep, and other

large mammals, usually selecting weak, old, or very young animals for

easier capture. When no live prey can be found, wolves feed on carrion

(decaying flesh of dead animals). They also eat berries. The den, or lair,

of aa wolf may be a cave, a hollow tree trunk, a thicket, or a hole in the

ground dug by the wolf. In the spring, females have litters of one to

eleven pups. Adult wolves sometimes feed young pups by regurgitating partly

digested food for them. The pups normally stay with the parents until the

following winter but may remain much longer. Parents and young constitute a

basic pack, which establishes and defends a territory marked by urine and

feces. Larger packs may also assemble, particularly in the winter. The pack

leader is called the alpha male and his mate is the alpha female. As social

animals, wolves exhibit behavioral patterns that clearly communicate

dominance over or submission to one another. The communal howling of a pack

may serve to assemble its members, communicate with other packs, advertise

its territorial claims, or it may be simply a way of expressing pleasure.

Visual and scent signals are also important in communication. Although gray

wolves are still abundant across northern Europe and Asia, only remnant

populations exist elsewhere in Europe. Their numbers in North America also

have been greatly diminished. They are fairly abundant only in Alaska and

Canada; smaller numbers exist in the Pacific Northwest and upper Midwest,

primarily in Minnesota. Under the Endangered Species Act, the United SStates

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as threatened in Minnesota and as an

endangered species elsewhere in the United States except Alaska list the

gray wolf. The red wolf, also listed as endangered species, was the first

species for which the USFWS developed a recovery plan. The decreasing

numbers of wolves are the result of encroachments on their territory by

humans, who have long regarded wolves as competitors for prey and as

dangerous to livestock, pets, and people. However, few if any healthy

wolves have attacked humans, whom they instead try to avoid. Wolves are

valuable predators in the food web, and their decimation has led to the

overpopulation of certain other animal species in various areas. Active

efforts to reintroduce wolves to national parks in the United States are

now underway, although such efforts are controversial. Because coyotes have

hybridized with some red wolves, an attempt to reintroduce red wolves to

parts of North Carolina has involved identifying red wolves that are not

part coyote. The success of this project is not yet clear. In 1995 and 1996

the USFWS reintroduced Canadian gray wolves into Yellowstone National Park

and the Sawtooth Mountain region in central Idaho, despite protests from

nearby ranchers and some biologists. The reintroduced wolves are producing

more offspring than expected. When ten breeding pairs reside iin these

regions for three years, the gray wolf will be taken off the list of

endangered species in the northern Rocky Mountains. Wolf biologists

estimate that this goal may be met by the year 2002 without transplanting

additional wolves from Canada. By 1997 these reintroduction efforts were

succeeding beyond expectations of wolf biologists. Scientific

classification: The wolf belongs to the family Canidae. The gray, or

timber, wolf is classified as Canis lupus. The red wolf is classified as

Canis rufus.